What Policies Can Be Linked to the Practice of Overgrazing
The main bug associated with Mediterranean desertification
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Overgrazing
Pb author: Vasilios P. Papanastasis <vpapan@for.auth.gr>
With contributions from: Maria José Roxo and Pedro Cortesao Casimiro <mj.roxo@iol.pt>
This written report draws on inquiry results from projects other than DESERTLINKS.
- Land Utilize systems in the Mediterranean Mountains and Marginal Lands 1995-1998 (contract no. AIR-3-CT-93-2426). This project assessed the event of European union policies for livestock husbandry on local land use systems and the impact of grazing practices on Mediterranean mountains and marginal lands. Most of the data included in this department is derived from this projection.
- GeoRange 2001-2004 (contract no. EVK2-CT2000-00091). Like DESERTLINKS this was a projection in the area of land deposition/desertification in the Framework 5 Environment and Sustainable Development Programme. GeoRange was set by experts in rangeland ecology and management, ecosystem conservation and restoration, remote sensing and spatial information systems. With the direct involvement of responsible country managers, information technology aimed at the definition of optimised management strategies for multi-functional rangelands. For more than information on GeoRange click here.
g Clarification of reasons leading to overgrazing and why information technology is an issue in the context of desertification
Writer: Vasilios P. Papanastasis <vpapan@for.auth.gr>
Livestock grazing is an onetime practise in Mediterranean Europe. It dates back to the Neolithic menstruation when the outset domesticated sheep and goats arrived in the region. Since and then livestock husbandry has become a ascendant deed supporting civilizations and shaping Mediterranean ecosystems and landscapes.
In discussing the factors underlying deforestation in the Mediterranean countries, Thirwood (1981) considers grazing past domestic animals amidst the major causes, with goats singled out for their predilection of woody forage. Also, Tsoumis (1985) considers that grazing had a major contribution to deforestation, more than than agricultural clearances, with goats being the principal catastrophic agents. The same views are shared by Tomaselli (1977), who in addition points out that grazing can foreclose the development of maquis and garrigue to high forests. The convictions against goats were so strong in the centre of the past century that several countries had to have decisive measures to reduce their numbers or even eliminate them completely by subsidizing their slaughter (FAO, 1964). As a event of these views, the "Ruined Mural" theory nearly Mediterranean Europe has been adult (Grove and Rackham, 2001). As a matter of fact, the blame on livestock for destroying the surroundings is confounded with the mismanagement applied for which the sole responsibility is with men and not the animals (Papanastasis, 1986).
Rangelands of the Mediterranean region include grasslands, besides known equally pastures, as well as "woody" rangelands, namely dwarf shrublands (e.g. phrygana, batha, tomillares), shrublands (e.one thousand. garrigue, maquis, matorral) and open forests (less than twoscore% tree canopy), also known as silvopastoral systems. According to Le Houerou (1981), these rangelands are grazed by 270 million sheep-equivalents, which include horses, mules, donkeys, cattle, camels, pigs, sheep and goats. The latter two kinds of animals are the dominant group making 75% of the unabridged population. All these animals graze on about 830,000 km² of rangelands respective to a stocking rate of about 2.ii sheep-equivalents per hectare. If we consider that the grazing capacity of Mediterranean rangelands is no more than than 1 sheep-equivalent/ha/yr on the boilerplate, we may conclude that these rangelands are seriously overgrazed. Nevertheless, the grazing force per unit area is not evenly distributed all over the Mediterranean rangelands and it is certainly higher in the south than in the north Mediterranean. In Mediterranean Europe, it is also unevenly distributed with areas being highly overgrazed (e.g. lowlands, around villages) besides as undergrazed (due east.g. remote areas).
In discussing the reasons for overgrazing in Mediterranean rangelands, Le Houerou (1981) considers the main reason to be the Mediterranean climate itself, and more than specifically the mild and rainy winters which allow grazing animals to stay outdoors not just in the summer - equally happens in the temperate areas - simply besides in the winter, resulting in nearly year-long grazing periods. As a 2nd reason he considers the socio-economic conditions which provide a social condition to farmers having large flocks, or force farmers to raise large flocks in order to make a living. However, in that location are boosted, very of import, reasons. I such reason is the marginality of grazing areas in the Mediterranean region made up of hilly and mountainous lands with relatively shallow and rocky soils and steep slopes resulting in low productivity and grazing capacity. In dry and semi-dry areas, this problem is further aggravated by the low and erratic precipitation. Another important reason is state tenure. A large proportion of rangelands in the Mediterranean region including southern Europe are state or municipality and community-endemic areas that are communally grazed by livestock of the local people (east.thou. the island of Crete - Papanastasis, 1993). Nether this communal organisation, grazing management is difficult or impossible and most ofttimes leads to overgrazing (Papanastasis, 1988). A final reason is the EU policies applied before the Calendar 2000 was implemented that subsidised the number of animals, thus encouraging farmers in Mediterranean European union countries to increment their flocks in society to receive higher levels of subsidy (Dubost, 1998; Pulina et al., 1998).
 | Overgrazing by goats in a communal shrubland in north-eastern Greece (photo by V. Papanastasis) |
Grazing has multiple furnishings on natural ecosystems. Animals defoliate vegetation and consequently bear on plant growth, plant vigour, establish reproduction, species composition, constitute comprehend and biomass, thus resulting in bare soil. Grazing animals also trample the soil thus reducing majority density and infiltration rates and increasing overland menses. If the slopes are steep and the soils erodible then soil erosion may upshot leading to desertification. This can happen, yet, only when overgrazing is practical on a continuous basis, namely when too many animals are trying to feed on a limited supply of provender (Dregne, 1978).
 | Accelerated erosion in a rangeland overgrazed by cattle in north-western Greece (photograph by V. Papanastasis). |
Overgrazing has a negative effect on plant diversity. Although several individual plant species are adapted to intensive grazing or seem to exist favoured due to the reduction of contest (Bergmeier, 1998; Egli, 1991; Grove and Rackham, 2001; Seligman and Perevolotsky, 1994), the overall touch on of overgrazing is negative, particularly in grasslands (Koukoura et al. 1998; Koutsidou and Margaris, 1998; Papanastasis, 1985; Papanastasis et al. 2002). On the contrary, moderate grazing has a beneficial effect on plant diversity (Montalvo et al., 1993; Naveh and Whittaker, 1979; Noy-Meir, 1998; Puerto et al., 1990), but undergrazing or no grazing at all may also produce negative furnishings (Peco et al., 1998). Undergrazed or ungrazed rangelands nowadays the problems of abased lands being invaded past woody species, which increase the fire gamble and issue in devastating wildfires.
In woody rangelands, the touch of overgrazing may not exist adverse to found diversity because the woody species tin play a buffering role. This is the case with the phryganic communities, in which phryganic species, being unpalatable to animals themselves, can protect herbaceous species from overgrazing under their awning. This buffering role however is eliminated if overgrazing is combined with wildfires (Papanastasis et al., 2002).
Wildfires set by shepherds to control undesirable growth of vegetation is a mutual exercise in several parts of Mediterranean Europe (east.grand. Corsica, Sardinia, Crete, western Hellenic republic). Although Mediterranean vegetation is well adapted to fire and usually grows back subsequently burning, it tin be destroyed if burning is combined with overgrazing. Several studies have shown that the combination of wildfires and overgrazing are the main cause of rangeland degradation and desertification in the Mediterranean Europe (Arianoutsou-Faraggitaki, 1985; Aru, 1986; Margaris and Koutsidou, 1998; Pantis and Mardiris, 1992; Pantis and Margaris 1988; Papanastasis, 1977; Papanastasis et al. 1990; Vokou et al., 1986).
In decision, overgrazing is an consequence of desertification in Mediterranean Europe especially in those areas where it is combined with pastoral wildfires
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g Examples of reasons for overgrazing in European Mediterranean areas
g Lower Inner Alentejo, Portugal
Authors: Maria José Roxo and Pedro Cortesao Casimiro <mj.roxo@iol.pt>
The importance of cattle convenance in the area of the municipality of Mértola is well documented. Royal laws exist, dating from the medieval period, protecting the action. In the past, sheep and pigs extensively grazed natural pastures, in a balanced use of local resources. Vast areas of the Mértola municipality provided spring grazing for flocks brought in from other regions of the land (for example the Algarve and college Alentejo).
 | Sheep, Serra de Mértola, Mértola (photo by Maria Roxo, Pedro Casimiro) |
Now, incentives over many decades to increment cereal production have led to a significant decrease of natural pasture areas. This has resulted in the remaining areas for grazing cattle becoming more than intensively used, and consequently increasingly degraded.
In addition CAP incentives for sheep, pig and cattle production have led to a significant increment in numbers of animals per hectare and new methods of husbandry. Previously shepherds grazed their cattle over extensive areas, only now they stay in the same place supported by the installation of an infrastructure of fences, stables and small dams to provide drinking water. This causes a more prolonged event on the soil from trampling and pasture exhaustion.
 | Cattle, Serra Mértola, Mértola (photograph by Maria Roxo and Pedro Casimiro) |
All these factors take contributed to more intensive and widespread country degradation in the surface area. It is important that attitudes towards the activeness are changed and that husbandry systems are adopted that are more suited to the specific soil and climatic conditions of the area.
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g Psilorites mount, Crete (Greece)
Author: Vasilios P. Papanastasis <vpapan@for.auth.gr>
Psilorites mountain has a maximum altitude of 2,456 k a.south.l. It is located at the middle of Crete with an expanse of nearly 500 km², mostly lying above 600 m a.southward.l. It is permanently inhabited past near 18,000 people living in 20 village communities. The dominant boulder is undivided limestone and the soils are cherry. The climate is sub-boiling Mediterranean with wet and balmy winters that become cold in high altitudes. Vegetation is complex; it includes mostly evergreen simply also a few deciduous woody species likewise as phryganic species, which dominate the mount. Land tenure is likewise circuitous; agricultural lands are privately endemic but forests and rangelands are land endemic and the right to graze them belongs to the local people.
 | General view of Psilorites mount (photo past 5. Papanastasis). |
Every bit far as the soils are concerned, they were found to be very shallow (<15 cm) or shallow (15-30 cm) on most of the mountain, with well-nigh twoscore% of the surface surface area occupied by rocky outcrops (Pendarakis, 1994). They get deeper in karstic dolines, which however are limited in surface area, and constitute towards the foot of the mountain.
Livestock husbandry is a traditional activity that has shaped Psilorites mountain since the Neolithic period (Lyrintzis and Papanastasis, 1995). In the last few decades, even so, the number of grazing animals have been dramatically increased, mainly due to national initiatives,and, specially since 1981 (when Hellenic republic became a member of the European Wedlock), due to European union subsidies. Based on National Statistical Data, the numbers of sheep were increased by 529% and of goats by 279%, from 1961 until 1991. These loftier numbers in 1991 resulted in an average stocking charge per unit of 4.6 sheep-equivalents/ha/year (Menjli, 1994), which is at least four times higher than the grazing capacity of rangelands (Papanastasis et al., 1990), suggesting overgrazing.
 | Evolution of livestock numbers between 1961 and 1991 in the Psilorites mountain of Crete (Information from National Statistical Service). |
In order to written report the impact of overgrazing on Psilorites mountain, air photographs taken in 1961 and 1989 were processed and the major country apply/comprehend types were identified and recorded for the two periods. The results showed an increase of thin and medium density shrublands (mainly phryganic ecosystems) at the expense of the dumbo ones, as well as of forests. This evolution indicates degradation, since fewer shrubs suggest less woody cover to protect the soil and sustain productivity. The impact of overgrazing was more astringent when it was combined with pastoral wildfires.
 | Land use/cover changes on the Psilorites mountain of Crete between 1961 (top) and 1989 (beneath) (Bankov, 1998). |
 | Desertification caused by the combination of pastoral wildfires and overgrazing on Psilorites mountain, Crete (photo by 5. Papanastasis). |
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g Overview of how the indicators inter-relate
Writer: Vasilios P. Papanastasis <vpapan@for.auth.gr>
Overgrazing is management oriented but as a process information technology is affected past several physical and socio-economic factors besides. Assessment indicators may relate to management, vegetation and abiotic conditions every bit well as to social, economic and political ones.
Overgrazing is caused when the number of animals carried in a rangeland are more than than its grazing capacity, suggesting these extra animals could be from a few to likewise many. As a result, the number of animals grazing in a rangeland or the grazing intensity, expressed as stocking rate, is a very important indicator of rangeland degradation (Papanastasis, 1998; 2000). Due to the dissimilar way that the diverse grazing animals collect the provender, their impact on vegetation is different (Rook et al., 2004) and therefore the kind of animal species is very important in the overgrazing procedure. Also, the system with which animals graze in rangelands is important, also. For instance, continuous grazing on a year-long ground is more adverse to species composition than a seasonal or rotational grazing system (Sternberg et al., 2000). It has been already mentioned that combining overgrazing with wildfires can be more detrimental than either of the ii processes alone. The distribution of bachelor infrastructure may determine whether a rangeland will exist evenly used or not; normally the animals tend to graze more intensively near the watering points and brute sheds than away from them (Ghossoub, 2003). Finally, overgrazing volition exist avoided if alternative feed resources are available and therefore the production organization practical is affecting the bear on of grazing animals on rangelands (Papanastasis, 1990).
 | Increased land degradation around a watering point on Dia islet (Crete) (photo past V. Papanastasis). |
For vegetation, important indicators are the corporeality of biomass produced or left at the finish of the grazing period, the plant cover (Papanastasis et al., 2003) and the species composition. Usually, when overgrazing has occurred, the pasture is filled with weeds, which are undesirable constitute species to animals. Soil and climatic variables such as soil depth, slope gradient, parent material, soil erosion, rainfall (amount and distribution), and temperature are all affecting vegetation and therefore the number of animals that tin can exist grazed on a rangeland. There is a direct relationship between the soil depth (Papanastasis, 1994) or the corporeality of surface rocks (Alexandris et al., 1997) and herbage production in grasslands. Also, herbage production is very much affected by rainfall and air temperature (Papanastasis, 1982).
Considering socio-economical indicators, they may include Eu subsidies for animal numbers, the local traditions every bit far as the flock size is concerned, the land tenure (private, land or communal rangelands), the alternative income that the farmers can accept apart course raising livestock and the laws that dictate the use of rangelands past the farmers. All these indicators interrelate with each other and with several concrete indicators (east.g. productivity of rangelands) as well as direction factors (e.g. number and kind of animals, grazing system, etc).
Overgrazing is related ro other issues, particularly land abandonment and deforestation.
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thou References
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